Perfect gerunds and perfect participle clauses

Hiểu bài

The grammar uses having + past participle to refer to an earlier completed action. One exercise begins, “After we listened to an introduction to the course, we asked some questions,” and asks learners to reduce the earlier event. Another sequence says a student failed university entrance exams and then decided to train as a mechanic. The section also explains that a negative perfect participle can give a reason, as in “Not having read the book, he can’t give us his opinion.”